Muslim-majority countries face complex economic and political challenges, and one proposed solution has been the establishment of political systems grounded in Islamic principles. In response, various Islamic political movements and parties have emerged, often invoking Islamic rhetoric and teachings to garner support. However, these movements present a paradox: while some, like Hamas, have turned to violent terrorist tactics to achieve their goals, others, such as Turkiye’s Justice and Development Party (AKP), have evolved into an authoritarian regime marked by corruption and repression. In both cases, the pursuit of political Islam has often led to the distortion of Islamic ideals, associating the religion with violence, extremism, corruption, and political failure. This article examines the trajectory of political Islam, focusing on the AKP’s rule in Turkiye since 2002, to explore the gap between ideological aspirations and the realities of governance.
The Rise of Political Islam and the AKP
Political Islam is a political ideology that seeks to shape governance and society according to Islamic principles and law (Sharia). It advocates for the integration of Islamic values into public life, influencing legal, political, and social systems. The spectrum of political Islam ranges from moderate political parties to more radical groups, each focusing on issues such as social justice, community welfare, and resistance to perceived oppression. The rise of political Islam can be understood as a response to various historical factors, including colonialism, globalization, and the marginalization of religious communities in the modern world. These movements reflect the complex intersection of faith, identity, and politics, offering diverse interpretations and practices in different regions.
Islamist political parties often stem from earlier Islamist groups that sought to purify Islam from Western influences in the economic, cultural, and political realms. These movements also emerged as a reaction to the secular repression that marginalized religious communities in the 20th century. In many cases, political Islam has been framed as an alternative solution to ongoing political and economic grievances, offering a vision of governance that prioritizes Islamic values and addresses the perceived failures of secular regimes.
Political Islam in Turkiye has deep roots, tracing back to the late 20th century, with Necmettin Erbakan as a key figure in its modern development. In 1972, Erbakan founded the National Salvation Party (MSP), which sought to integrate Islamic values into the political system while challenging the secular order. In the 1990s, his Welfare Party (RP) became a leading political force, briefly forming a coalition government in 1996. However, Erbakan’s tenure was marked by tensions with the military and secular elites, culminating in his resignation under pressure during the 1997 “post-modern coup.” Despite these setbacks, Erbakan’s vision laid the foundation for future Islamic political movements, most notably the Justice and Development Party (AKP), founded by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who came to power in 2002.
In its early years, the AKP, fearing it might be shut down like its predecessors, distanced itself from its Islamist stance. Instead, it adopted a more moderate, center-right rhetoric, which helped it appeal to a broader constituency. The party embraced democratic reforms and positioned itself as a defender of religious and conservative Turks who felt marginalized by the secular state. The AKP also saw Turkiye’s European Union accession talks as an opportunity to limit the military’s influence over the constitution, aiming for a more balanced system of governance. The party’s survival was further ensured by the 2008 attempt by secular elites to close it and by failed military efforts to overthrow the government. In this way, the AKP emerged as a product of Turkiye’s rigid secular system and a response to the grievances that previous parties had not addressed effectively.
Eroding Democracy and Leveraging Religion and Fear
Political Islamist parties like the AKP often use religion as a means to consolidate power, appealing to religious sentiments to maintain their grip on followers. In Turkiye, the AKP is seen by many as the defender of Islam, having lifted the ban on headscarves in universities and government institutions. The conversion of Hagia Sophia from a museum into a mosque further exemplifies how the AKP uses Islam to solidify its political agenda. While these actions resonate with religious voters, they also raise concerns about the erosion of democratic principles. The party’s religious appeals have largely overshadowed core democratic values like pluralism, secularism, and individual rights. Many voters, fearing a return to secular policies that might restrict religious freedoms, overlook significant democratic backsliding and economic challenges. This dynamic shows how political parties can effectively bypass democratic values by prioritizing religious identity and fear of secularism, reinforcing their power while sidelining democratic governance.
The AKP also employs fear-based tactics to maintain control, contributing to the polarization of Turkish society. By manipulating media and state institutions, the government has stifled opposition and marginalized dissenting voices. The party often warns that its removal from power could result in the closure of mosques or the banning of the hijab, framing these potential actions as threats to religious freedoms. This fear-mongering reinforces the party’s position as the guardian of religious rights, while deflecting attention from the erosion of democratic processes. By fostering a climate of fear, the AKP has managed to undermine democratic accountability, relying on polarization and religious appeals to secure its political dominance. In doing so, it minimizes the role of democratic institutions, disregarding checks and balances in favor of preserving its power.
Corruption Under the Guise of Religion
Islam has often been exploited, not only by terrorist groups like Salafi-jihadists, who adhere to a strict interpretation of the Qur’an, but also by political Islamist parties that manipulate distorted versions of Islam for personal gain. For example, the AKP and its predecessors regularly criticized endemic corruption—until they gained control of municipalities and the government. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, elected mayor of Istanbul in 1994, is a case in point. During his campaign, he claimed to own nothing except a ring on his finger. However, after becoming mayor, accusations of corruption began to follow him. Today, his fortune is estimated to be vast, if not immense. The same applies to his inner circle, those who showed loyalty to him and worked as his ministers and municipal mayors, amassing tremendous wealth. Influenced by his interpretation of Islamic teachings, Erdoğan and his followers believed that those in power, representing Islam, should become wealthy. They began funneling government resources to individuals they considered “religious” in exchange for “Islamic commissions,” which they viewed as a right for those in power. Over time, this mentality evolved into a lifestyle driven by greed. Today, these individuals—many of whom are prominent AKP-connected businessmen—have become key players in a system that benefits from government contracts and other state resources.
While corruption is not new to Turkish politics, the AKP’s greed has been unparalleled. Turkiye’s ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index has dramatically worsened, dropping from 64th place in 2002 to 115th in 2023. Today, reports suggest that one-third of government contracts are tainted by corruption, making the AKP’s administration one of the most corrupt in Turkish history. The government has been accused of misappropriating public funds, justifying its actions with twisted interpretations of Islamic principles.
Redefining Justice and Manipulating Power
Political Islamist parties often claim to promote justice and government reforms, but in practice, they contradict themselves by prioritizing the protection of their own interests. This cycle of corruption and greed allows them to avoid accountability. As a result, their version of justice often serves only to protect their power. For example, Turkiye’s December 17-25 corruption scandals implicated President Erdoğan, his cabinet ministers, and family members. Investigators presented strong evidence showing the theft of government funds, which also violated Islamic principles. However, the AKP blocked further investigations and harshly punished the investigators — including their families and children — with actions that directly contradict Islamic teachings, which oppose unjust punishment. This example illustrates how political Islamist parties may manipulate the concept of justice to safeguard their own survival when pushed to do so.
Terrorism As a Political Tool
Political Islamist parties are often caught in a paradox when it comes to their relationship with terrorism. On the one hand, they are frequently labeled as terrorist organizations by their opponents, while on the other hand, they exploit the term “terrorism” to demonize their political rivals. This duality is particularly evident in the case of the Muslim Brotherhood, which has been designated as a terrorist organization by some countries while still maintaining significant political influence in others. In Turkiye, the AKP has skillfully used accusations of terrorism to silence dissent and consolidate its power. It has a long history of labeling groups such as Kurdish political movements, secular opposition figures, and followers of the Gülen movement as “terrorists,” often without substantial evidence.
A particularly striking example of this tactic came after the controversial coup attempt on July 15, 2016. A former CIA agent, in an interview, expressed skepticism about the coup’s authenticity, raising questions about whether the AKP might have manipulated the situation to further its own agenda. Following the failed coup, the AKP used it as a pretext to accuse another religious group, Gulenists, and unjustly imprison hundreds of thousands of people. Their message was clear: either accept the AKP’s version of justice or face severe consequences. The AKP used the event to justify an unprecedented crackdown on perceived enemies, launching over 2.2 million investigations into alleged terrorism-related activities from 2016 to 2022. However, the US government’s terrorism database recorded only 434 terrorist incidents in the same period, committed mainly by the PKK terrorist organization. AKP’s investigations were often criticized as politically motivated, with the AKP accusing anyone who opposed its rule of being involved in terrorism. Reports of torture and even rape within detention centers have emerged, exposing human rights abuses carried out under the pretext of defending the state.
In this context, political Islamist parties like the AKP have leveraged the post-9/11 global focus on terrorism to their advantage. By framing their opposition as terrorist threats, they not only justify heavy-handed tactics against dissent but also position themselves as the protectors of national security and the defenders of Islam. This strategy allows them to gain political legitimacy, even as they suppress political pluralism and democratic accountability. The paradox of political Islam, therefore, lies in the way these parties can simultaneously present themselves as victims of terrorism while using the label to suppress any group that poses a challenge to their rule. In doing so, they reinforce their hold on power while undermining the very democratic principles they claim to uphold.
The U.S. government has long sought to promote democracy worldwide, operating on the belief that democratic regimes are essential for protecting human rights and fostering both regional and global cooperation. In theory, democratic systems offer a framework for accountability, transparency, and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. However, political Islamist parties may take a different trajectory, frequently leaning toward authoritarianism once they gain power. A striking example of this trend can be found in Turkiye, where a group of political elites, initially elected under the banner of democratic reform, has gradually consolidated power in a manner that undermines democratic institutions.
In conclusion, while Western governments promote democracy worldwide, some Islamic countries have seen the rise of political parties that claim to uphold Islamic values. However, these parties often fail to live up to their stated principles. Rather than fostering justice and equality, many exploit Islam for personal gain, leading to corruption, repression, radicalization, and undemocratic practices. Many ideologies and religious models have faltered throughout history because people failed to adhere to their core values. The same is true of political Islam today. Initially, the Muslim community hoped for an alternative political model based on Islamic teachings that could address current political and economic grievances. However, political leaders have used Islam as a tool for their own interests, distorting its message to gain power and personal benefit. Political Islam may thus become an example of how politicians can exploit religion for their own gain, often with terrorism as a dark shadow. Turkiye’s AKP exemplifies this trend: it initially promised to address grievances, counter strict secular repression, and bring prosperity. However, it has become one of Turkiye’s most repressive and corrupt political parties. Instead of strengthening democracy, it has undermined the country’s fragile political system, damaged the image of Islam, and tied it to corruption and authoritarianism. In this way, political Islam in Turkiye has dimmed the democratic hopes once associated with it.