Blockchain Technology Protection: Applications Along Mexican and U.S. Border: Part II

Click here to read Part I of this article.

Data Integrity 

The data integrity offered by blockchain can significantly enhance border security measurements through the immutability and transparency of data. Figure 1 depicts the characteristics of data identity; it shows how blockchain technology can also provide an efficient and secure platform for managing border security operations. Some key benefits include immutable record-keeping, secure identity verification, traceability and transparency, streamlined data sharing, and smart contracts for compliance.³⁵  

Streamlined Data Sharing: Security agencies and international partners could benefit from secure and efficient data sharing produced by blockchain technology. This streamlined data exchange can enhance collaboration and coordination among various authorities, enabling faster and more effective responses to potential security threats and emergencies. This would enable customs and border agencies to achieve a seamless “data pipeline” from end to end. Permissioned³⁶ blockchains facilitate the secure sharing of pertinent information. These blockchain networks, managed by supply-chain consortia, allow continuous access and updates  

for all involved parties, empowering regulatory bodies to maintain precise and dependable data while sourcing it from appropriate channels.³⁷  

Identity Management 

Blockchain technology has the potential to significantly enhance identity management by offering secure, decentralized, and immutable solutions to identity-related challenges. Figure 2 depicts the characteristics of how the technology can work to improve identity management through mechanisms such as decentralization, immutable records, self-sovereign identification (SSI), verification and authentication, and interoperability. 

Decentralization and Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI): As mentioned previously, Self-Sovereign Identity refers to the concept of an individual owning their own identity without the need for central authorities or intermediaries. Using decentralized technologies emphasizes allowing users to manage and control their identity-related information, including personal data and credentials. SSI enables users to store their identity data, selectively share it as needed, and maintain control over its use, reducing reliance on centralized entities. Decentralization, however, broadly refers to the distribution of control and data across a network of nodes or participants, eliminating the need for a single central authority. Decentralization reduces the reliance on centralized authorities, providing individuals greater control over their identity data. SSI empowers users to manage and share their information selectively, enhancing privacy and control.³⁸  

Secure Authentication: Blockchain systems use cryptographic methods, digital signatures, private keys, etc., to enable secure authentication processes. Users have unique digital identifiers that authenticate their identity when interacting with various services or systems. This method ensures that only authorized individuals can access their information. Implementing measures significantly reducing the risk of identity theft and fraud is critical. Blockchain’s cryptographic security features can play a significant role in safeguarding identity data and preventing malicious activities.³⁹  

In 2022, U.S. goods and services trade with Mexico reached $855.1 billion, making Mexico our second-largest trading partner.⁴⁰ According to the Department of Commerce, U.S. exports of goods and services to Mexico totaled $362.5 billion in 2022, which accounted for 13 percent of total U.S. exports and 43 percent of Mexican imports. U.S. exports supported an estimated 1.1 million jobs in 2019.⁴¹ Mexico recently became the United States’ principal trade partner in early 2023. Bilateral trade totaled $263 billion in the first four months of the year, accounting for more than 15 percent of total U.S. trade. This data underscores the heightened significance of ensuring faster, more secure, and more efficient delivery of processes today.  

Supply Chain Security 

The 2012 National Strategy for Global Supply Chain Security⁴² emphasizes the need for efficient and secure movement of goods through a resilient global supply chain system. It highlights collaboration among stakeholders, integration of efforts across government agencies, and enhanced risk management to address evolving threats and ensure continuity of operations.⁴³ Blockchain technology offers transformative potential for customs operations at the Mexico–US border by introducing a transparent, immutable ledger system that securely tracks goods, streamlines documentation, and automates compliance verification through smart contracts. When integrated with Internet of Things (IoT)⁴⁴ devices, blockchain enables real-time monitoring of goods, capturing data such as location and conditions during transit. This innovation enhances trust, security, and operational effectiveness by ensuring transparency, authenticity, and accountability at every stage of the supply chain.⁴⁵  

Smart contracts reduce costs and administrative burdens while automating payments and compliance processes. Its decentralized structure prevents tampering and unauthorized access, fostering confidence among stakeholders, enabling efficient auditing, and facilitating rapid dispute resolution. Together, these capabilities have the potential to revolutionize cross-border supply chains, making them more efficient, transparent, and secure.⁴⁶  

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 

Stakeholder Collaboration 

Collaboration between Mexican and U.S. agencies in border security is essential to address shared challenges such as arms trafficking, drug smuggling, and human trafficking. This cooperation is based on intelligence sharing, joint operations, and mutual respect for national sovereignty.⁴⁷ In this context, blockchain technology emerges as a promising tool to improve transparency and efficiency in border processes. By providing an immutable ledger accessible to all authorized parties, blockchain enables real-time tracking of goods and automated compliance verification, reducing costs and increasing trust among stakeholders.⁴⁸ 

Figure 3 illustrates the key stakeholder agencies in Mexico and the United States that can work together to establish a binational framework to safeguard the border. The US Department of Homeland Security can engage in collaboration with several Mexican counterparts, including the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público), the Ministry of the Interior (Secretaría de Gobernación), and the National Guard (Guardia Nacional). Similarly, the US Department of Defense can coordinate efforts with the Secretary of National Defense (Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional). Additionally, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) can foster collaboration with the Secretary of Public Security and Citizen Protection (Secretaría de Seguridad Pública y Protección Ciudadana). The Department of Justice, working in coordination with Mexico’s Attorney General’s Office (Fiscalía General de la República), can strengthen judicial and prosecutorial collaboration to combat transnational crime and enhance border security. On a diplomatic front, the US Department of State can establish collaborative ties with the Mexican Secretary of Foreign Affairs (Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores). 

The US Department of Homeland Security (DHS) with the Mexican Ministry of Finance and Public Credit (SHCP: Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público), Ministry of Interior (SEGOB: Secretaría de Gobernación), and National Guard (GN: Guardia Nacional): 

• DHS and the Ministry of Finance and Public Credit can collaborate on blockchain-based payment systems for customs duties and financial transactions related to border security.

• DHS can work with the Ministry of Interior to utilize blockchain for secure sharing of immigration data and coordination of law enforcement efforts. 

• DHS and the Mexican National Guard can share real-time border surveillance data stored on the blockchain, enabling coordinated responses to security threats. 

US Department of Defense with the Mexican Secretary of National Defense (SEDENA: Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional): 

• The US Department of Defense can collaborate with the Secretary of National Defense on secure communication channels and shared logistics management for joint border security operations.  

• Both entities can utilize blockchain to secure the tracking of military assets and personnel movements along the border. 

U.S. Central Intelligence Agency with the Mexican Secretary of Public Security and Citizen Protection (SSPC: Secretaría de Seguridad y Protección Ciudadana): 

• The CIA and the Secretary of Public Security and Citizen Protection can collaborate on secure sharing of intelligence data and coordination of anti-smuggling efforts using blockchain technology. 

• Blockchain-based identity verification systems can enhance the security of covert operatives and informants involved in border security operations. 

U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) with Mexican Attorney General’s Office (FGR: Fiscalía General de la República): 

• Utilizing blockchain technology, the DOJ and FGR can securely share legal documentation, evidence, and case-related information. Smart contracts can automate the process of exchanging legal documents, ensuring authenticity and confidentiality. 

• Blockchain can facilitate the coordination of criminal investigations and prosecutions between the DOJ and FGR. Immutable records of investigative activities, witness statements, and court proceedings can be stored on the blockchain, enhancing transparency and accountability. 

• The DOJ and FGR can use blockchain to track and manage seized assets related to cross-border criminal activities such as drug trafficking and money laundering. Smart contracts can automate the process of asset confiscation and ensure that confiscated assets are transparently managed. 

U.S. Department of State with the Mexican Secretary of Foreign Affairs (SRE: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores): 

• The US Department of State and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs can establish blockchain-based diplomatic communication channels for secure and transparent collaboration on border security policies and initiatives. 

• Blockchain can facilitate tracking diplomatic agreements and initiatives related to border security, ensuring transparency and accountability in diplomatic relations. 

• By international collaboration between these agencies according to their areas of expertise and responsibilities, collaboration can be more targeted and efficient, leading to enhanced border security measures between Mexico and the United States. 

Disaster Response 

Blockchain technology, renowned for its decentralized and immutable ledger system, offers a transformative solution in disaster response and humanitarian aid efforts. Its decentralized nature ensures transparent and tamper-proof record-keeping of critical data, such as supply chain logistics, donations, and resource allocation, fostering stakeholder trust and accountability. By enabling secure and rapid transactions, automating processes through smart contracts, and providing resilient data storage, blockchain streamlines aid distribution, expedites resource allocation, and prevents fraud. Furthermore, its ability to enhance donation traceability, establish digital identities, and ensure data integrity makes blockchain a powerful tool in revolutionizing the efficiency, transparency, and effectiveness of disaster relief efforts.⁴⁹  

Such characteristics could enhance disaster response efforts along the international border in three ways. The first advantage is the transparent and immutable ledger feature. This is what ensures crucial information remains secure and unaltered. Thus, accountability and mitigating the risk of fraudulent activities is enhanced.⁵⁰ Secondly, blockchain’s capability for secure and rapid transactions, emphasized by Zwitter & Boisse-Despiaux facilitates direct peer-to-peer transactions, minimizing delays in delivering aid to affected regions.⁵¹ Additionally, its decentralized data storage safeguards critical information redundantly across nodes, reducing the vulnerability to data loss during infrastructure failures.⁵² 

Furthermore, the utilization of smart contracts, advocated by the Stellar Development Foundation and Clarke, enables automated aid distribution based on predefined conditions, streamlining assistance processes.⁵³ Blockchain’s role in enhancing donation traceability, as outlined by Almaghrabi & Alhogail, ensures transparency in tracking contributions, fostering trust among donors.⁵⁴ Moreover, blockchain facilitates identification and credentialing, as suggested by the Council of Europe, aiding in verifying the legitimacy of beneficiaries and preventing identity fraud.⁵⁵ Lastly, the technology’s immutable nature supports data integrity and recovery, which is essential for reconstructing critical information post-disaster.⁵⁶  

INTELLIGENCE SHARING AND SECURE COMMUNICATIONS 

Creating a shared blockchain platform for securely exchanging immigration, customs, and other relevant data between Mexico and the United States could improve collaboration and decision-making processes related to border management. 

The U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) agency is actively testing advanced blockchain solutions and specifications to bolster its capacity to safeguard American businesses against intellectual property rights (IPR) theft. Blockchain technology could aid in combating IPR violations by allowing CBP to exchange data securely and efficiently with manufacturers, retailers, rights holders, and importers.⁵⁷  However, to fully harness the potential of blockchain technology at the border, a collaborative blockchain framework between the two border-sharing countries is crucial. By establishing a unified platform, both countries can streamline customs procedures, facilitating smoother and quicker clearance processes for goods crossing the border.  

Blockchain’s inherent characteristics, such as tamper-proof data records and encrypted transactions, ensure the integrity and security of customs-related information, including import/export documentation, tariffs, and inspection records. This technology enables real-time data sharing between Mexican and US customs authorities, allowing immediate access to accurate and updated information on shipments and trade activities. Such accessibility reduces delays and redundancies in customs clearance and helps combat trade-related fraud and smuggling by providing a transparent and immutable ledger of transactions. Additionally, the shared blockchain platform promotes interoperability between the customs systems of both nations, fostering standardized processes and improving coordination in managing cross-border trade, ultimately fostering economic growth and bolstering bilateral trade relations. 

Moreover, while protecting intellectual property rights remains a vital focus, CBP should also broaden its scope, recognizing that blockchain technology can significantly improve border operations beyond trade. Implementing a shared blockchain technology at the Mexico-US border can significantly bolster efforts to detect and apprehend criminals attempting to cross the border unlawfully. Utilizing blockchain’s secure and transparent ledger system allows for the creation of a unified and tamper-resistant database that can be shared between Mexican and US law enforcement agencies. This platform enables the real-time exchange of critical information related to criminal activities, including known criminal profiles, alerts on suspects, and crime patterns, thus facilitating swift identification and tracking of potential threats. By utilizing encrypted keys and immutable records, blockchain ensures the secure storage and transmission of sensitive data while maintaining the privacy of individual information. This collaborative approach could enhance the capacity of both countries’ border security agencies to detect and intercept criminal elements, including traffickers, smugglers, and individuals involved in illegal activities, thereby fortifying efforts to maintain safety and security along the border.  

Blockchain technology offers several features that can enhance the security and transparency of communications within and between government organizations. Data integrity, transparency, decentralization, and encryption are pivotal in developing secure organizational communications.  This is essential to prevent potential hackers from taking advantage of crucial weak spots to maintain the homeland’s security.⁵⁸  The immutability of blockchain ensures that once information is added to the chain, it cannot be altered retroactively without the network’s consensus. This feature can help maintain the integrity of sensitive government data and communications. Blockchain networks use cryptographic techniques to secure data. This ensures that communications are encrypted and protected from unauthorized access, enhancing the security of sensitive information.⁵⁹ The transparent nature of blockchain allows authorized personnel to trace and verify the origin and movement of data. This transparency could increase accountability within government communications.⁶⁰ Distributed ledger technology (DLT) removes the need for a central authority, which can reduce the risk of a single point of failure and improve the resilience of communication networks against cyberattacks.⁶¹  

​​​CONCLUSION 

Blockchain technology offers promising solutions to the complex challenges faced along the Mexico-United States border. By leveraging blockchain’s decentralized ledger system, both governments could enhance security measures, streamline trade processes, and foster economic growth along the common border. The immutable and transparent nature of blockchain offers opportunities for secure identity verification, transparent data sharing, and efficient supply chain management. All of which could enhance the free flow of goods and people across the common border. While blockchain has its limitations and challenges, its potential to transform border management and cross-border trade is undeniable. As governments and businesses continue to explore and implement blockchain solutions, collaboration, and innovation will be key to unlocking the full benefits of this transformative technology. With careful planning and strategic implementation, blockchain has the potential to revolutionize border security and trade, ushering in a new era of efficiency, transparency, and prosperity for border communities on both sides of the Mexico-United States border. 

(No artificial intelligence was used in writing this article.)

References 

35 IBM, n.d.; FerdH, 2024. 

36 A permissioned blockchain is a type of blockchain network where access is restricted to authorized users or entities. Unlike public blockchains, which are open to anyone, permissioned blockchains require permission to join and participate.  

37 Okazaki, 2018; Kharche, Badholia, & Upadhyay, 2024. 

38 Stockburger et al., 2021; Gillis, 2022; Shardeum Content Team, 2023b. 

39 Choudhary, 2023; Kiania, Jameii, & Rahmani, 2023; W3C, 2022. 

40 Office of the United States Trade Representative, n.d. 

41 U.S. Department of State, 2023. 

42 Ellison, Harwood, Kaye, & Ram, 2025; Office of the Director of National Intelligence, 2024. 

43 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012. 

44 Internet of Things (IoT), which refers to a network of interconnected devices embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies to collect and exchange data over the internet. 

45 Ganne, 2018; Singh, 2024; McDaniel, 2019. 

46 Gaur & Gaiha, 2020; Henry et al., 2023; Notomoro, 2024. 

47 U.S. Department of State, 2025. 

48 NuvoCargo, 2024. 

49 Forbes Technology Council, 2024; Gatsby, 2024. 

50 Chawre, n.d.; Zhang, Sheng, & Liu, 2024. 

51 Zwitter & Boisse-Despiaux, 2018. 

52 De Filippi, Mannan & Reijers, 2020; Dart, 2024. 

53 Stellar Development Foundation, n.d.; Clarke, 2023b. 

54 Almaghrabi & Alhogail, 2022. 

55 G’sell & Martin-Bariteau, 2022. 

56 Stellar Development Foundation, n.d. 

57 CBP, 2020. 

58 IBM. n.d. 

59 Fairchild, 2023. 

60 Jung, 2019. 

61 Barney et al., 2023. 

Abrahani, R. (2023, October 30). How is blockchain transforming the entire financial services industry? Datafloq. Retrieved from https://datafloq.com/read/blockchain-transforming-financial-services-industry/ 

Ajayi, A. (2023, September 22). Blockchain Security: Myth Or Reality? Retrieved from https://www.blockchain-council.org/blockchain/blockchain-security-myth-or-reality/ 

Akanfe, O., Lawong, D., & Rao, H. R. (2024). Blockchain technology and privacy regulation: Reviewing frictions and synthesizing opportunities. International Journal of Information Management, 76, 102753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2024.102753 

Almaghrabi, A., & Alhogail, A. (2022). Blockchain-based donations traceability framework. Journal of King Saud University – Computer and Information Sciences, 34(10), 9442-9454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2022.09.021 

Alzoubi, Y. I., & Mishra, A. (2023). Green blockchain – A move towards sustainability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 430, 139541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139541 

Arvey, S., & Leutert, S. (2019, June 27). Thousands of asylum seekers are left waiting at the US-Mexico border. UC San Diego via The Conversation. https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/thousands-asylum-seekers-left-waiting-us-mexico-border 

Artasanchez, A. (2023, June 11). The role of blockchain in data products: Ensuring transparency and trust. [LinkedIn article]. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/role-blockchain-data-products-ensuring-transparency-artasanchez/ 

Atlantic Council. (2022, September). The Economic Impact of a More Efficient US-Mexico Border: How Reducing Wait Times at Land Ports of Entry Would Promote Commerce, Resilience, and Job Creation. Report Contributors: Alejandro Brugués Rodríguez, John Byrd, Noé Arón Fuentes Flores, David Gaytan, John Gibson, Camila Hernández, Mayra Maldonado, Jason Marczak, Jorge Eduardo Mendoza Cota, Roberto Ransom, & Ignacia Ulloa. Retrieved from https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/The-Economic-Impact-of-a-More-Efficient-US-Mexico-Border.pdf 

Baer, K., de Mooij, R. A., Hebous, S., & Keen, M. (2023, July 5). Taxing Cryptocurrencies (No. WPIEA2023144). IMF Working Paper. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2023/06/30/Taxing-Cryptocurrencies-535510?cid=bl-com-WPIEA2023143 

Bandopadhyay, D. (2023, October 7). Blockchain Security: Safeguarding Your Assets. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/blockchain-security-safeguarding-your-assets-debiprasad-bandopadhyay-es5ef/ 

 Barney, N., Troy, S., & Pratt, M. K. (n.d.). TechTarget, distributed ledger technology (DLT). TechTarget. Retrieved from https://www.techtarget.com/searchcio/definition/distributed-ledger. 

Bron, D. (2023, May 9). The role of AI and Blockchain in the fight against human trafficking: Using technology to save lives and prevent exploitation. [LinkedIn article]. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/role-ai-blockchain-fight-against-human-trafficking-using-daniel-bron/ 

Bublak, D. (2023, December 1). Smart contracts and blockchain: Revolutionizing contracting in the digital age. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.dau.edu/blogs/smart-contracts-and-blockchain-revolutionizing-contracting-digital-age 

Chawre, H. (n.d.). Blockchain for Supply Chain: Paving the Way for Transparency and Efficiency. Retrieved from https://www.turing.com/resources/blockchain-for-supply-chains 

Choudhary, A. S. (2023, May 30). Concept of cryptography in blockchain. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2022/09/concept-of-cryptography-in-blockchain/ 

Clarke, A. (2023, May 30a). The Environmental Impact of Blockchain Technology. Nasdaq. Retrieved from https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/the-environmental-impact-of-blockchain-technology 

Clarke, A. (2023, October 20b). Blockchain improves charity transparency — But is it right for everyone? Cointelegraph. Retrieved from https://cointelegraph.com/news/blockchain-charity-transparency-adoption 

Cristian, L. (2023, September 28). The Growing Role of ISO 27001 in Blockchain: A Vital Requirement for Security. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/growing-role-iso-27001-blockchain-vital-requirement-security-lucera/ 

Crypto.com. (2024, January 9). What Is Nakamoto Consensus? The Mechanism That Powers Bitcoin. https://crypto.com/university/what-is-nakamoto-consensus-bitcoin 

De Filippi, P., Mannan, M., & Reijers, W. (2020). Blockchain as a confidence machine: The problem of trust & challenges of governance. Technology in Society, 62, 101284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101284 

De Meijer, C. R. W. (2023, September 26). Blockchain and the scalability challenge: Solving the blockchain trilemma. Finextra. https://www.finextra.com/blogposting/24941/blockchain-and-the-scalability-challenge-solving-the-blockchain-trilemma 

Digialert. (2023). Blockchain and smart contract security. LinkedIn. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/blockchain-smart-contract-security-digialert/ 

Drug Enforcement Administration. (2021, March). DEA 2020 National Drug Threat Assessment (NDTA). Retrieved from https://www.dea.gov/sites/default/files/2021-02/DIR-008-21%202020%20National%20Drug%20Threat%20Assessment_WEB.pdf 

Ellison, C. B., Harwood, S., Kaye, D. M., & Ram, A. B. (2025, February 6). Bipartisan push to strengthen American supply chains. Global Supply Chain Law Blog. https://www.globalsupplychainlawblog.com/supply-chain/bipartisan-push-to-strengthen-american-supply-chains/ 

European Parliamentary Research Service. (2019, July). Blockchain and the General Data Protection Regulation: Can distributed ledgers be squared with European data protection law? (STOA Panel for the Future of Science and Technology, Scientific Foresight Unit, PE 634.445). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2019/634445/EPRS_STU(2019)634445_EN.pdf 

Fairchild, Z. (2023, December 29). Quantum blockchain security: Navigating the new frontier of digital integrity. Medium. https://medium.com/@linkedx74/quantum-blockchain-security-navigating-the-new-frontier-of-digital-integrity-09d243221e69 

FerdH. (2024, February). Is Blockchain Identity Management a game-changer in supply chain trust building? Bulbapp. https://www.bulbapp.io/p/a5e5fbd0-c4f1-42fa-a43a-13a1b38594ac/is-blockchain-identity-management-a-game-changer-in-supply-chain-trust-building 

Finck, M. (2019). Smart contracts as a form of solely automated processing under the  

GDPR. International Data Privacy Law, 9(2), 78–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/idpl/ipz004 

Firica, Oana. “BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY: PROMISES AND REALITIES OF THE YEAR 2017.” Quality – Access to Success 2017, Supplement 3: 51-58. 

Forbes Technology Council. (2024, February 16). Blockchain technology: Harnessing it for business and social good. [Blog post]. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2024/02/16/blockchain-technology-harnessing-it-for-business-and-social-good/?sh=65fef5694abc 

Ganne, E. (2018). Can Blockchain revolutionize international trade? [PDF document]. World Trade Organization. Retrieved from https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/blockchainrev18_e.pdf 

Gatsby, T. (2024, February 20). Blockchain for humanitarian aid: Improving transparency and accountability. [LinkedIn article]. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/blockchain-humanitarian-aid-improving-transparency-terrence-gatsby-781rc/ 

Gaur, V., & Gaiha, A. (2020, May-June). Building a transparent supply chain. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2020/05/building-a-transparent-supply-chain 

Gillis, A. S. (2022). Self-sovereign identity. Retrieved from https://www.techtarget.com/searchsecurity/definition/self-sovereign-identity 

Grigg, G. (2022, April 12). Combatting trafficking with blockchain analysis. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.chainalysis.com/blog/combatting-trafficking-with-blockchain-analysis/ 

G’sell, F., & Martin-Bariteau, F. (2022.). The impact of blockchains for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. Council of Europe. Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/report-on-blockchains-en/1680a8ffc0/ 

Guo, H., & Yu, X. (2022, June). “A Survey on Blockchain Technology and Its Security.” Blockchain: Research and Applications, 3(2), Article 100067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2022.100067 

Hayes, A. (2023, December 15). Blockchain facts: What is it, How it Works, and How it Can Be Used? Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/blockchain.asp 

Henry, W., Chen, E., Kathawate, R., & Coulter, J. (n.d.). Using blockchain to drive supply chain transparency: Use cases and future outlook on blockchain in supply chain management. Deloitte Consulting LLP. Retrieved from https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/pages/operations/articles/blockchain-supply-chain-innovation.html 

Hewett, N., van Gogh, M., & Pawczuk, L. (2020). Inclusive deployment of blockchain for supply chains: Part 6 – A framework for blockchain interoperability. World Economic Forum. Retrieved from https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_A_Framework_for_Blockchain_Interoperability_2020.pdf 

Hussein, Z., Salama, M. A., & El-Rahman, S. A. (2023). Evolution of blockchain consensus algorithms: A review on the latest milestones of blockchain consensus algorithms. Cybersecurity, 6, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42400-023-00163-y 

IBM. (n.d.). “What is blockchain security?” IBM. https://www.ibm.com/topics/blockchain-security 

 International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (2023). Blockchain and distributed ledger technologies (DLTs) — Overview of trust anchors for DLT-based identity management (ISO/TR 23644:ed-1:v1). Retrieved from https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/en/#iso:std:iso:tr:23644:ed-1:v1:en 

International Rescue Committee. (2022, July 1). Is it legal to cross the U.S. border to seek asylum? Retrieved from https://www.rescue.org/article/it-legal-cross-us-border-seek-asylum 

Jung, T. J. (2019, April 15). How transparency through blockchain helps the cybersecurity community. IBM. Retrieved from https://www.ibm.com/blog/how-transparency-through-blockchain-helps-the-cybersecurity-community/ 

Khan, S. N., Loukil, F., Ghedira-Guegan, C., Benkhelifa, E., & Bani-Hani, A. (2021). Blockchain smart contracts: Applications, challenges, and future trends. Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications, 14(5), 2901–2925. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12083-021-01127-0 

Kharche, A., Badholia, S., & Upadhyay, R. K. (2024). Implementation of blockchain technology in integrated IoT networks for constructing scalable ITS systems in India. Blockchain: Research and Applications. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2024.100188 

Kiania, K., Jameii, S. M., & Rahmani, A. M. (2023). Blockchain-based privacy and security preserving in electronic health: A systematic review. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 82(28493–28519). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-14488-w 

Klein, C. (2018, December 26). Everything you need to know about the Mexico-United States border. History. https://www.history.com/news/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-mexico-united-states-border 

 Koulu, R. (2016). Blockchains and Online Dispute Resolution: Smart Contracts as an Alternative to Enforcement. Script-ed, 13(1). Retrieved from https://script-ed.org/article/blockchains-and-online-dispute-resolution-smart-contracts-as-an-alternative-to-enforcement/ 

 Lemus, G. (2024, February 13). Arms Trafficking Across the US-Mexico Border. Wilson Center, Mexico Institute. Retrieved from https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/infographics-arms-trafficking-across-us-mexico-border 

Marr, B. (2018, February 16). A very brief history of blockchain technology everyone should read. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/02/16/a-very-brief-history-of-blockchain-technology-everyone-should-read/?sh=5eda52d7bc47 

Marr, B. (2023, April 14). The 5 Biggest Problems With Blockchain Technology Everyone Must Know About. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2023/04/14/the-5-biggest-problems-with-blockchain-technology-everyone-must-know-about/?sh=4eae054855d2 

McDaniel, C. A. (2019). Can Blockchain Technology Facilitate International Trade? SSRN Electronic Journal. DOI:10.2139/ssrn.3377708. 

Moody’s. (2022, November 29). Blockchain-based solutions to combat modern slavery. Retrieved from https://www.moodys.com/web/en/us/kyc/resources/insights/blockchain-based-solutions-combat-modern-slavery.html 

Muriuki, W. (2024, February 15). Total Bitcoin, Balancing Privacy and Transparency in Blockchain. Retrieved from https://totalbitcoin.org/privacy-transparency-blockchain/ 

Nakamoto, S. 2008. “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System.” Accessed September 6, 2023. https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf. 

New America. (n.d.). Blueprint for Blockchain and Social Innovation: Key Attributes of Blockchain. Retrieved from https://www.newamerica.org/digital-impact-governance-initiative/blockchain-trust-accelerator/reports/blueprint-blockchain-and-social-innovation/key-attributes-of-blockchain/ 

Notomoro. (2024, February 29). Blockchain for supply chain: Enhance transparency & traceability. Retrieved from https://webisoft.com/articles/blockchain-for-supply-chain/ 

NuvoCargo. (2024). How Blockchain Technology can Enhance Transparency and Security in US-MX Cross-Border Freight. https://www.nuvocargo.com/blog-posts/how-blockchain-technology-enhance-transparency-security-us-mx-cross-border-freight 

Office of the Director of National Intelligence, National Counterintelligence and Security Center. (2024, September 26). Securing your supply chain ecosystem. https://www.dni.gov/files/NCSC/documents/supplychain/20240926_Securing-Your-Supply-Chain-Ecosystem.pdf 

Office of the United States Trade Representative. (n.d.). Mexico trade & investment summary. U.S. Trade Representative. https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/americas/mexico 

Okazaki, Y. (2018). Unveiling the Potential of Blockchain for Customs. World Customs Organization. Retrieved from https://www.wcoomd.org/-/media/wco/public/global/pdf/topics/research/research-paper-series/45_yotaro_okazaki_unveiling_the_potential_of_blockchain_for_customs.pdf 

Ottakath, N., Al-Ali, A., Al-Maadeed, S., Elharrouss, O., & Mohamed, A. (2023). Enhanced computer vision applications with blockchain: A review of applications and opportunities. Journal of King Saud University – Computer and Information Sciences, 35(10), 101801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksuci.2023.101801 

Red Cross. (2024, January 03). Red Cross Support for Migrants, Refugees, and Asylum Seekers in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.redcross.org/about-us/news-and-events/press-release/2024/red-cross-support-for-migrants-refugees-and-asylum-seekers-in-us.html 

RecordRS. (2024, January 3). Using blockchain in medical record management. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.recordrs.com/blog/using-blockchain-in-medical-record-management/ 

Shardeum Content Team. (2023a, May 10). What is a 51% Attack,  and Its Impact on Blockchain? Shardeum. https://shardeum.org/blog/51-attack/ 

Shardeum Content Team. (2023b, September 21). Self Sovereign Identity (SSI): The Future of Digital Identity. Retrieved from https://shardeum.org/blog/self-sovereign-identity/ 

Singh, R. (2024, March 1). The impact of blockchain on supply chain management. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://coruzant.com/blockchain/the-impact-of-blockchain-on-supply-chain-management/ 

Stockburger, L., Kokosioulis, G., Mukkamala, A., Mukkamala, R. R., & Avital, M. (2021). Blockchain-enabled decentralized identity management: The case of self-sovereign identity in public transportation. Blockchain: Research and Applications, 2(2), 100014. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2096720921000099 

Stellar Development Foundation. (n.d.). Smart contract basics. Retrieved from https://stellar.org/learn/smart-contract-basics 

 Synopsys. (n.d.). Blockchain. https://www.synopsys.com/glossary/what-is-blockchain.html 

Third Way. (2017, February 2). The state of the southern border [Memo]. Retrieved from https://www.thirdway.org/memo/the-state-of-the-southern-border 

Tripathi, G., Ahad, M. A., & Casalino, G. (2023). A comprehensive review of blockchain technology: Underlying principles and historical background with future challenges. Decision Analytics Journal, 9, 100344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dajour.2023.100344 

Uddin, M. A., Stranieri, A., Gondal, I., & Balasubramanian, V. (2021). A survey on the adoption of blockchain in IoT: Challenges and solutions. Blockchain: Research and Applications, 2(2), 100006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcra.2021.100006 

United Nations. (n.d.). Human Trafficking FAQs. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/faqs.html 

U.S. Customs and Border Protection. (2020, February 28). CBP Leverages Blockchain Innovation to Protect American Business. CBP Newsroom. https://www.cbp.gov/newsroom/national-media-release/cbp-leverages-blockchain-innovation-protect-american-business 

 U.S. Customs and Border Protection. (n.d.). Human Trafficking. Retrieved from https://www.cbp.gov/border-security/human-trafficking 

U.S. Department of Justice, National Drug Intelligence Center. (2008, April). Attorney General’s Report to Congress on the Growth of Violent Street Gangs in Suburban Areas. Retrieved from https://www.justice.gov/archive/ndic/pubs27/27612/cborder.htm#Top 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2024a, July 2.). Blockchain portfolio. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/blockchain-portfolio 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2024b, August 1). National Strategy for Global Supply Chain Security. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/national-strategy-global-supply-chain-security 

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (n.d.) Office of Homeland Security Statistics. . Immigration Enforcement Actions Annual Flow Report. Retrieved from https://www.dhs.gov/ohss/topics/immigration/enforcement-afr 

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs. (2023, September 13). U.S. Relations With Mexico: Bilateral Relations Fact Sheet. https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-mexico/ 

U.S. Department of State. (2025). Joint Statement on Security Cooperation between the United States and Mexico. https://www.state.gov/releases/office-of-the-spokesperson/2025/09/joint-statement-on-security-cooperation-between-the-united-states-and-mexico 

 U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2021). Firearms Trafficking: U.S. Efforts to Disrupt Gun Smuggling into Mexico Would Benefit from Additional Data and Analysis (GAO-21-322). Published: February 22, 2021. Publicly Released: March 24, 2021. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-21-322 

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2022). Technology Assessment: Blockchain: Emerging Technology Offers Benefits for Some Applications but Faces Challenges. Report to Congressional Requesters. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-22-104625.pdf 

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2023, September). SOUTHWEST BORDER: Additional Actions Needed to Address Cultural and Natural Resource Impacts from Barrier Construction. Report to the Ranking Member, Committee on Natural Resources, House of Representatives. Retrieved from https://www.gao.gov/assets/830/828858.pdf  

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2022). Global Report 2022. https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/101400 

University of Arizona. (2020, April 28). A Brief Legislative History of the Last 50 Years of the U.S.-Mexico Border. Retrieved from https://mexico.arizona.edu/revista/brief-legislative-history-last-50-years-us-mexico-border 

UtilitiesOne. (2023, November 3). Blockchain Ensuring Data Integrity in Communication Networks. Retrieved from https://utilitiesone.com/blockchain-ensuring-data-integrity-in-communication-networks 

Venkatesan, K., & Rahayu, S. B. (2024). Blockchain security enhancement: An approach towards hybrid consensus algorithms and machine learning techniques. Scientific Reports, 14, 1149. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-51578-7 

W3C. (2022, July 19). Decentralized Identifiers (DIDs) v1.0: Core architecture, data model, and representations. Manu Sporny, Dave Longley, Markus Sabadello, Drummond Reed, Orie Steele, & Christopher Allen. W3C Recommendation. Retrieved from https://www.w3.org/TR/did-core/ 

Wentz, B. (2022, March 8). How blockchain and digital identity can reduce risk and identity theft. [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://www.amlrightsource.com/news/how-blockchain-and-digital-identity-can-reduce-risk-and-identity-theft 

World Customs Organization (WCO). (2023). Open Customs Blockchain: The missing piece to unlocking the digitalization of customs. https://mag.wcoomd.org/magazine/101-issue_2_2023/open-customs-blockchain/ 

World Trade Organization. (n.d.). World Customs Organization and World Trade Organization, Joint publication: The role of technologies in trade facilitation. Retrieved from https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/wco_wto_the_technologies.pdf 

Zhang, X., Sheng, Y., & Liu, Z. (2024). Using expertise as an intermediary: Unleashing the power of blockchain technology to drive future sustainable management using hidden champions. Heliyon, 10(1), e23807. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23807 

Zwitter, A., & Boisse-Despiaux, M. (2018). Blockchain for humanitarian action and development aid. International Journal of Humanitarian Action, 3, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41018-018-0044-5