The present work is the result of a primary research involving face-to-face interviews that Hassen conducted with 80 captured ISIS fighters conducted in Baghdad city prisons from May to June 2023 as a part of the requirement for the Hassen’s Doctoral dissertation at George Mason University (GMU). All 80 individuals received sentences of capital punishment and are currently awaiting their fates. We are unable to use their real names due to the IRB regulations of GMU, where one of the authors is a doctoral student.
We are specifically focusing on their answers to questions about their reasons for joining ISIS and their justifications for harming civilians. Those 80 grievance saturated stories have provided a peek inside the mind of those who commit atrocities and the role that grievance as a manipulative technique can be attached to personal and group identity with horrific results. But we are not just referring to the manipulation of the identity of the victims; we are also referring to the manipulation of the identity of the perpetrators.
It has long been recognized that “othering” or dehumanizing the opposition is a fundamental and initial requirement for acts of violence against civilians. It is not our goal to re-establish that well established point. Rather, we are presenting examples of not only the dehumanization of others, but also examples of how the identity of aggressors themselves are subject to identity manipulation.
From the 80 interviews conducted, we have chosen to feature the justifications of four captured terrorists as representative justifications for violence against civilians. Note that while all of those interviewed shared a common theme of grievance, the specific grievance itself may differ, and may not even be personally experienced. Ironically, and often, neither the recruiters nor their audiences are direct victims of the grievances that they identify with. And yet the presence of grievances in their stories is foundational.
During the interviews, two Iraqi fighters, Omar (30-years-old) and Abdullah (25-years of age) shared their experiences and beliefs. Omar revealed, “The ISIS organization conveyed to us that applying Hukum Al-Tankeel was the way to attain heaven. We were instructed that it was our duty to eliminate different ethnic and religious groups as part of the process of establishing Hukum Allah on Earth.”
Abdullah discussed the impact of ISIS stories in manipulating the religious narrative to rationalize the targeting of civilians. He stated, “The ISIS organization conveyed that civilians are considered apostates as they do not adhere to ISIS rules, Hukum Allah, and Wala Wal Bara. They asserted that we cannot succeed in the war unless we take severe measures against them.”
International ex-ISIS fighters Zohar, aged 36, and Anas, aged 39, stated that torture and beheading were considered normal acts by the ISIS organization since these individuals were labeled as ‘kuffar’ – كفار)) non-believers who were outside of the path of the Islamic state.
Omar
During a face-to-face interview with Omar, a former ISIS fighter incarcerated at Al-Karkh Prison for male ex-ISIS fighters, he revealed that he had originally been associated with Al-Qaeda before affiliating with ISIS in 2015. Omar had been sentenced to death for his involvement in war crimes against civilians, which included torture, waterboarding, and execution by hanging using electric cables.
When asked why he committed these crimes and how he justified them, as well as whether he felt any remorse, Omar explained that ISIS offered a 19-day military training program that included extensive religious indoctrination inside the ISIS camps.
He stated that in the religious training, fighters were indoctrinated with the belief that ISIS was the true inheritor of Allah’s message and that Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi was His caliph. According to ISIS stories, the divine mandate from Allah obligated chosen individuals or groups to wage war against the enemies of Allah, seize all lands, eradicate corruption on Earth, dismantle Western civilization, and eliminate all non-believers. He emphasized that this narrative made him feel like a true warrior of Allah ( (محارب حقيقي.
When asked if he felt any guilt for killing or torturing civilians, Omar’s response was that these actions were seen as normal, as they paved the way for building the Islamic state. He emphasized that ISIS used a foundational narrative that successfully convinced its members that they were on the righteous path, using Quranic verses and Prophet Muhammad’s Hadith to reinforce their beliefs. In lectures ISIS clerics stressed the necessity of cultivating a pure generation known as ‘Awlea’ Allah’ (companions of Allah) who possessed the courage and devotion to uphold Allah’s message.
They often cited the Quranic verse, ‘Follow, [O mankind], what has been revealed to you from your Lord and do not follow other than Him any allies. Little do you remember’ (Al-A’raf, Verse 7:3) to justify their actions. According to their interpretation, achieving this required the removal of those they considered infidels, including Muslims who did not adhere to ISIS’s strict rules.
Abdullah,
This 25-year-old former ISIS fighter was housed in Al-Rusafa prison in Baghdad awaiting his death sentence to be carried out. He had been sentenced to death due to his participation in terrorist operations in Mosul city, Iraq. He mentioned that his activities started after 9 months of joining ISIS. (Based on all the interviews, it seems that ISIS takes the new soldiers to a different level of training, both religious and military, before sending them on higher- level operations). So we assume that Abdullah started his activities at the beginning or mid of 2015.
Abdullah came from a poverty-stricken family that struggled to provide “even one meal a day” for him and his younger brother. He stated that when ISIS occupied Mosul, he underwent two weeks of military and religious training, during which he was told that their poverty and grievances were a consequence of the sins and the sinners surrounding them. ISIS offered a salary of $150 (note: in U.S. dollars, not Iraqi dinar) and told him that he had been chosen to be one of the ‘Al-Khawas ( الخواص)(the elites) because he pledged complete loyalty to Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi.
Abdullah explained that the ISIS story was attractive because it embraced a sense of justice against the Iraqi government, which had a history of denying Sunni people job opportunities and resorting to arrests and killings. However, he now realizes that if he had known the truth about the ISIS and its manipulation, he would have never believed in it. Abdullah joined ISIS at a young age (18). He said that at this age, he did not know that ISIS was using a religious narrative for manipulation. ISIS recruited him and young boys inside mosques in Mosul city. For him, at that age, as he mentioned,
…( لقد كانت روايتهم رائعة ) (“It was a fascinating narrative”)
Zohear, Tunisian
Zohear, aged 36, interviewed at Al-Rusafa Prison in Baghdad, is originally from Tunisia and currently sentenced to death. He revealed in a face-to-face interview that he had been arrested in Syria for his involvement in executing heinous crimes, such as hand-cutting and beheadings while serving with ISIS. He staunchly defended the ISIS story firmly believing that it was the right path because it promised justice and aimed to establish the rule of Allah worldwide.
Zohear held a leadership position within ISIS, responsible for indoctrinating and training new recruits. He stated that he usually cited verses from Islamic holy books to inspire and convince new ISIS members that they were fulfilling Allah’s orders,
“And fight them until there is no more Fitnah (disbelief and polytheism: i.e. worshipping others besides Allah) and the religion (worship) will all be for Allah Alone [in the whole of the world].” (Al-Anfal, Verse 8:39). During the interview, Zohear displayed no remorse when discussing his involvement in these crimes.
Anas, French Citizen
Anas, aged 39, was interviewed in Al-Rusafa Prison in Baghdad, a French citizen who also held a leadership position in ISIS, explained that he was responsible for torturing and intimidating civilians. Like the other interviewees, Anas has been sentenced to death. And from that perspective he elaborated on how the ISIS narrative was filled with promises to transform the Muslim lands into Dar-Al-Islam ( دار السلام ) (The land of believers), and this vision had a strong appeal to him. Anas described that due to the powerful influence of ISIS’s narrative in the media, he felt that emigrating to Syria and Iraq was akin to a sacred duty. As a result he viewed France as representing Dar–Al-Hareb/Al-Shirk ( دار الحرب / الشرك)(the land of war/disbelievers).
When asked to explain why he believed killing and torturing civilians was justified, he stated that, according to the ISIS religious narrative, these individuals were considered apostates. In the Islamic State narrative this label entitled their execution, as they were seen as distorting the process of purifying the Islamic land. When asked whether he felt regret or any remorse for his actions, Anas adamantly refused to disclose his opinion or reveal if he experienced any regret.
How ISIS Exploits the Grievance Narrative for Radicalization
The manipulation and eventual weaponization of narratives is the foundation of psychological warfare. Weaponized narratives don’t simply target an audience; they create a target audience. They create a target audience by causing an audience to mis-identify itself.
The effects of weaponized narratives are much more insidious than the effects of physical force as they last long after the initial assault. The real power of the technique is to get the audience to subject itself to them. Successfully targeted groups and individuals will conduct the psychological assault upon themselves indefinitely and will likely pass on this learned mind set to others intentionally or even unintentionally. Without intervention the process can be passed on inter-generationally.
The techniques of bad actors involve the strategic manipulation of identity and meaning. We are focused in this article on the manipulation of identity. Because large parts of identity are unconscious, the assault happens at an unconscious level. When we are most influenced by a story, it is because the story connects with a foundational cultural narrative with which we have learned to identify.
Narratives less than conscious. That means that while they are not completely unconscious, they are also not fully conscious. They are underground – under the cultural terrain. Narrative operate at the level of assumption. They are part of the taken for granted culture that people are born into. Through conscious stories that rise out of them, narratives inform us , less than consciously, about who we are supposed to be, how we are supposed to act, how we are supposed to process data in our environments.
Narratives encourage us to internalize certain types of identities and ways of processing information that are consistent with the foundational cultural narrative itself. But narratives don’t inform us about these norms and expectations out loud. Stories do that. And they do that for a motivated reason even if no one remembers what the reason is.
Even though they are less than conscious, we don’t need an introduction to our narratives, anymore than a fish needs an introduction to water.
Identity Manipulation
Before delving into how ISIS utilizes the grievance narrative in the radicalization process and the resort to terrorism as a means of conflict resolution, it is essential to comprehend the concept of a “true Muslim” (المسلم الحقيقي).
For ISIS and other jihadist groups like Hamas, Al-Qaeda, and Nusra, the notion of a ‘true Muslim’ serves as the cornerstone of the grievance narrative used in the radicalization process. This concept is grounded in the presumptive rules of Islamic jurisprudence, characterized by fluidity and complexity, often challenging for ordinary individuals to fully grasp. These groups extract and abstract Quranic and Prophet Muhammad’s Hadith texts, twisting them to make them more appealing to Muslim communities.
To be considered a true Muslim by jihadist preachers, scholars, and clerics, an individual must be willing to relinquish personal agency and make extreme sacrifices for the sake of group unity. It is worth noting that the concept of ‘the true Muslim’ differs significantly between jihadist groups and the broader Muslim population, and this definition is limited to them. Thus, understanding the grievance narrative, which subsequently leads individuals toward adopting a terrorist or violent extremist path, should be approached by exploring the essence of the ‘true Muslim.’ The entity of a ‘true Muslim’ can be deconstructed into three distinct levels: spiritual, moral, and societal/humanitarian by the jihadist scholars.
1- Spiritual Level:
At the spiritual level, every true Muslim must dedicate themselves to advancing Allah’s word, which may involve fulfilling the jihadi duty to establish divine justice in the human realm. Jihadist groups often reference Quranic texts, such as Surah At-Tawbah (9:111), which highlights the significance of fighting in the Way of Allah,
“Surely Allah has purchased of the believers their lives and their belongings and in return has promised that they shall have Paradise. They fight in the Way of Allah, and slay and are slain. Such is the promise He has made incumbent upon Himself in the Torah, and the Gospel, and the Qur’an. Who is more faithful to his promise than Allah? Rejoice, then, in the bargain you have made with Him. That indeed is the mighty triumph.” (At-Tawbah, Verse 9:111)
“إِنَّ اللَّهَ اشْتَرَىٰ مِنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ أَنفُسَهُمْ وَأَمْوَالَهُم بِأَنَّ لَهُمُ الْجَنَّةَ ۚ يُقَاتِلُونَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ فَيَقْتُلُونَ وَيُقْتَلُونَ ۖ وَعْدًا عَلَيْهِ حَقًّا فِي التَّوْرَاةِ وَالْإِنجِيلِ وَالْقُرْآنِ ۚ وَمَنْ أَوْفَىٰ بِعَهْدِهِ مِنَ اللَّهِ ۚ فَاسْتَبْشِرُوا بِبَيْعِكُمُ الَّذِي بَايَعْتُم بِهِ ۚ وَذَٰلِكَ هُوَ الْفَوْزُ الْعَظِيمُ” (At-Tawba, 9:111)
They also cite Hadiths like the one that emphasizes fighting for the supremacy of Allah’s word, which, although considered a hadith agreed upon, doesn’t necessarily imply unanimous agreement on both wording and meaning among narrators. Nevertheless, jihadist groups cite such Hadiths to legitimize their actions,
“From Abu Musa Al-Ash’ari, may Allah be pleased with him, he said: ‘The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, was asked about a man who fights out of bravery, another who fights out of tribal loyalty, and yet another who fights for fame. Which of them is considered to be in the path of Allah?’ The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said: ‘He who fights so that the word of Allah may be supreme is the one in the path of Allah.'”
“عن أبي موسى الأشعري رضي الله عنه قال: سُئِلَ رَسولُ الله صلى الله عليه وسلم عَنْ الرَّجُلِ: يُقَاتِلُ شَجَاعَةً، وَيُقَاتِلُ حَمِيَّ وَيُقَاتِلُ رِيَاءً، أَيُّ ذلِكَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللّه؟ فَقَالَ رَسولُ الله صلى الله عليه وسلم : مَنْ قَاتَلَ لِتَكُونَ كَلِمَةُ الله هِيَ الْعُلْيَا، فَهُوَ فِي سَبِيلِ الله “
This Hadith emphasizes the importance of fighting to elevate the word of Allah, a concept that is often cited by jihadist groups to justify their actions.
2- Moral Level:
At the moral level, an individual must strive to exemplify the strength of the Ummah (the Islamic nation), using available resources like money, media, education, and preaching, etc., to revive the Islamic caliphate. The moral level also obliges a true Muslim to rely on violent methods to defend the oppressed and vulnerable, particularly women and girls who lack the means to act. This level entails not only defending the faith but also following the extremist ideology of the jihadists to protect oppressed people within the Sunni sect.
3- Societal/Humanitarian Level:
At the humanitarian and social level, individuals are compelled to communicate and cooperate with other Muslims around the globe to establish and strengthen a unified Ummah.
By dividing the concept of a ‘true Muslim’ into these three levels of entities, jihadist groups create psychological spaces that enable them to manipulate and establish the grievance narrative for political gain. In this way, they can effectively manipulate an individual’s agency, identity, freedom, dignity, and piety by emphasizing that the three levels should be embraced to be considered a true Muslim and ultimately reach the highest echelons of jihadists.
For instance, ISIS shapes the grievance narrative by positioning itself as the protector and defender of oppressed and vulnerable individuals against local non-believers and Western countries supporting them. ISIS claims that being a true Muslim and achieving success in this life and the hereafter involves upholding this concept.
In his speech, Mujahid Sheikh Abu Muhammad al-Adnani al-Shami, the Official Spokesman for the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant in 2014, emphasized the principle of protecting the oppressed and repelling aggressors, referencing a Quranic verse, “( He [Allah] will, of a surety, grant them in the land, inheritance (of power), as He granted it to those before them” (Al-Noor, Verse, 55)
To make the concepts of the ‘true Muslim’ and the grievance narrative more compelling, ISIS, like other jihadist groups, attempts to revive the theory of “the absence of an Imam and the vacancy of the one in authority,” which forms the basis for many Islamic groups “شغور الزمان عن الإمام، وخلوه من ولي الأمر”
Jihadist groups aim to revive the Caliphate under the umbrella of being a true Muslim, framing the grievance narrative against those they label as non-believers or ‘Kuffar,’ democratic and secular governments, and Western nations. Likewise, ISIS twists the Quranic text and Hadith , and cites Quranic verses to support their notions,
“And what is wrong with you that you fight not in the Cause of Allah, and for those weak, ill-treated, and oppressed among men, women, and children, whose cry is: ‘Our Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from You one who will protect, and raise for us from You one who will help.” (Al-Nisāa, Verse, 4:75)
“وما لكم لا تُقاتلونَ في سبيلِ اللهِ والمستضعفينَ من الرجالِ والنساءِ والولدانِ الذين يقولونَ ربَّنا أخرِجنا من هذه القريةِ الظالمِ أهلُها واجعل لنا من لدُنكَ ولِيًّا واجعل لنا من لدُنكَ نصيرًا”
(Al-Nisāa, Verse, 4:75)
According to the leader of ISIS, Abu Omar al-Qurashi al-Baghdadi, “We believe that Jihad in the path of Allah is an established duty by appointment since the fall of Al-Andalus for the liberation of Muslim lands, and it applies to both the righteous and the sinful, with the greatest sin being to neglect Jihad in the time of need,”
“نرى أن الجهاد في سبيل الله فرض على التعيين منذ سقوط الأندلس لتحرير بلاد المسلمين، وهو مع كل بر وفاجر، وأعظم الآثام بعد الكفر بالله النهي عن الجهاد في سبيل الله في زمن تعينه”
Abu Muhammad al-Adnani, the official spokesperson for ISIS, in his speech titled “Now, Now the Fight Has Come,” he went even further to say, “Every soldier in the Islamic State of Iraq and every fighter believes that Jihad in our time is one of the most obligatory duties after faith in Allah the Almighty. They believe that they must fight in the path of Allah, even if no other fighter remains in this era,”
“وقد قال أبو محمد العدنانيّ – المتحدث الرسميّ – في كلمة له بعنوان ‘الآن الآن جاء القتال’ بل زاد فقال: ‘إنَّ كل جنديٍّ في دولة العراق الإسلامية وكل مجاهد يعتقد أن الجهاد في زماننا من أوجب الواجبات بعد الإيمان بالله عز وجل، ويعتقد أن عليه أن يقاتل في سبيل الله حتى ولو لم يبق مجاهدٌ غيره في هذا الزمان”‘.
ISIS claims that it follows this directive. The connection between the concept of a ‘true Muslim’ and the grievance narrative provides crucial insights into the radicalization process and the motivations behind individuals’ transformation into terrorists.
The Islamic State organization considers the ruling systems in all Arab and foreign countries as non-believers from its legitimate perspective, as they do not rule according to what God has revealed, relying on the Quranic verse:
“And We ordained for them therein a life for a life, an eye for an eye, a nose for a nose, an ear for an ear, a tooth for a tooth, and for wounds is legal retribution. But whoever gives [up his right as] charity, it is an expiation for him. And whoever does not judge by what Allah has revealed – then it is those who are the wrongdoers.” ( Al-Ma’idah, Verse, 5:45)
“وكَتَبْنَا عَلَيهِمْ فيها أنَّ النَّفسَ بِالنَّفسِ وَالعَينَ بِالعَينِ وَالأَنفَ بِالأَنفِ وَالأُذُنَ بِالأُذُنِ وَالسِّنَّ بِالسِّنِّ وَالجُرُوحَ قِصَاصٌ ۚ فَمَن تَصَدَّقَ بِهِ فَهُوَ كَفَّارَةٌ لَّهُ ۚ وَمَن لَّم يَحكُم بِمَا أَنزَلَ اللَّهُ فَأُولَٰئِكَ هُمُ الظَّالِمُونَ”
( Al-Ma’idah, Verse, 5:45)
Conclusion
ISIS has used a grievance narrative to both recruit and mobilize those who identified as true Muslims, claiming that Western countries and their allies wielded their influence to oppress vulnerable true Muslims. Those interviewed cited examples like the mistreatment of Muslim women in Iraq (Abu Ghraib) and Syria (under Bashar al-Assad’s regime).
The exploitation of the grievance narrative by ISIS and similar groups hinges on the manipulation of a ‘true Muslim’ identity that is spiritually, morally, and socially charged, making it easier to manipulate individuals and recruit them into the path of extremism and violence. This is the case not only for ISIS but also other jihadist groups: Al-Qaeda, Nusra, and Hamas.
